Corruption is a phenomenon involving many different aspects, and it is therefore hard to give a precise and [1] comprehensible definition. However, at the core of most definitions of corruption is the idea that a corrupt act implies the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. Classic examples include bribery, clientelism, and [2] the act of embezzlement. Other, often subtler and sometimes even legal examples of corruption include lobbying and patronage. While long-run data on corruption is very limited, historical examples suggest that corruption has been a persistent feature of human societies over time and space.

The unethical and often illegal nature of corruption [3] makes measurement particularly complicated. Corruption data usually comes from either direct observation (e.g. law enforcement records and audit reports), or perception surveys (e.g. public opinion surveys, or expert assessments).

Although precise corruption measurement is difficult, there is a clear correlation between perception and behavior; so available corruption data does provide valuable information that, when interpreted carefully, can both tell us something important about our world [4] to contribute to the development of effective policies.

The Global Corruption Barometer produced by Transparency International asks individuals across countries whether they perceive specific institutions to be corrupt. The chart presents, by institution, the global aggregate figures. The numbers correspond to the percentage of survey respondents who think that “Most” or “All” of each institution is corrupt in their home country. [6] The estimates in the graph show that in Lebanon, for example, people perceive domestic police forces and the legislature to be particularly corrupt.

One of the most widely accepted mechanisms of controlling corruption is ensuring that those entrusted with power are held responsible [7] for reporting their activities. This is the idea behind so-called ‘accountability’ measures against corruption.

In a recent paper, Ferraz and Finan (2011) show that electoral accountability [8] casually affects the corruption practices of incumbent politicians in Brazil. [9] In municipalities where mayors can run for re-election there is significantly less corruption, and the positive [10] affect of accountability via re-election is more pronounced among municipalities with less access to information and where the likelihood of judicial punishment is lower. [11]

Questions 12-22 are based on the following passage.

The End of Advertising as We Know It

Everybody is well aware that the advertising game has undergone some pretty radical changes. That’s just the beginning according to IBM, which is predicting that the next five years will bring more change for the advertising industry than we [12] have seen during the previous 50 years.

That’s the conclusion of an IBM Institute for Business Value report titled―“The end of advertising as we know it.” It invites us to imagine a bold new [13] frontier in advertising, a marketing environment where:  

1. Spending on interactive, one-to-one advertising formats surpasses traditional, one-to- many advertising vehicles that we’ve used for decades in the form of newspaper, radio stations and TV networks. 2. A significant share of ad space is sold through auctions and exchanges, rather than proprietary channels. [14]3. Consumers self-select ads, choosing to receive only those messages about products and services that interest them. They then share preferred ads with their peers. 4. User generated [15] advertising  that is as prevalent as spots created by professional advertising agencies.

     Naturally, these conclusions don’t [16] end well for radio, television and newspaper advertising, though that is assuming their operational models don’t undergo some significant changes, which is already happening.  [17] This aside, notions that companies are going to entirely abandon brand-building ad campaigns entirely in favor of measurable direct-response campaigns is surely folly.

     Still, statistics show   there is a major reordering of spending priorities underway by advertisers, as more and more ad dollars continue migrating from traditional media venues to online channels. This is due in part to the high priority advertisers place on reaching young [18] people who haven’t yet established their buying patterns. 

      The IBM report believes there are powerful trends at work that are reconfiguring the advertising business. One such trend is attention. Consumers are increasingly in control of how they view, interact with and filter advertising in a multimedia environment. TV alone shook up the television advertising business, as viewers shifted their attention away from linear TV watching and have adopted tools that allow them to skip advertisements, as well as [19] rating their favorite ads and easily share them with friends. This is happening while people spend less time with traditional media outlets and more time with online media.

     (1)Another trend is creativity. (2) Technology has unleashed the creativity of everyday people. (3) Popularity of user generated and peer-delivered content is rising. New ad revenue-sharing models have allowed amateurs and semi-professionals to create low- cost advertising content. [20] People aren’t happy just consuming media; they want to participate in [21] it’s creation. IBM’s study indicates the trend will continue.

Questions 23-33 are based on the following passage.

Fire as a management tool long [23] predated European settlement of North America. Prescribed fire is a tool used by contemporary resource managers to meet numerous objectives, including reducing fuel loads and continuity, returning fire to an ecosystem, [24] to enhance wildlife habitat, improving forage, preparing seedbeds, improving watershed conditions, enhancing nutrient cycling, controlling exotic weeds, and enhancing resilience from climate change. [25] Fire has been used for thousands of years.

Factors that influence fire effects are vegetation type and seral stage, fuel conditions, topography, weather, climate, fire size, burning prescription, fire intensity, fire frequency, and fire seasonality. [26] In many, if not most, situations, prescribed fire is used in vegetation types where fire is a natural disturbance and a critical process influencing ecosystem structure and function. Fire suppression over the past century has disrupted natural fire regimes, and resulting ecosystems deviate considerably from what existed historically.

The realities of global climate change [27] have made it more apparent that there is only a limited understanding of its effects on ecosystems attributes, including wildlife.  This is partly because resulting changes will alter ecological systems and the underlying biotic relationships. Vegetation changes may render areas suitable for some plant and animal species, but unsuitable for others. [28] [29] New mixes of plant species, with unforeseen biotic interactions (e.g., competition, predation), may lead to the emergence of novel wildlife communities. Changes may occur at varying spatial scales, from micro to macro habitats and to landscapes and regions. [30] Given this quandary, alleviating the problem is a convenient task. 

Prescribed fire affects wildlife in various ways. Population responses by species can be positive, negative, or neutral; short- or long-term (or both); and they often change with time. Whereas prescribed fire can create or maintain habitats for some species, fire can remove or alter conditions in ways that render it unsuitable for other species. Furthermore, a species may benefit from fire in one situation but not another.

Social issues, particularly those surrounding smoke and emissions, constrain where, when, and how managers can burn. Certainly, emission standards enforced by state and federal environmental agencies limit windows of opportunity for burning. Smoke [31] going into human communities is a health concern, especially for people with existing respiratory ailments. Many publics associate smoke with fire and conclude that fire is bad. Progress has been made at educating the public concerning benefits of prescribed fire to reduce threats of wildfire to people and property and also benefits to ecological communities.

[32] As a result, benefits of prescribed fire far outweigh negative effects. [33] They should be applied within a structured adaptive management framework, which requires developing and implementing monitoring systems to evaluate efficacy of specific fire prescriptions. Depending on monitoring results, prescriptions could be applied elsewhere or adjusted to meet management objectives.

Questions 34-44 are based on the following passage.

By the time a child is six or seven, she has all the essential avoidances well enough by heart to be trusted with the care of a [34] younger child. And she also develops a number of simple techniques. She learns to weave firm square balls from palm leaves, to make pinwheels of palm leaves or frangipani blossoms, to climb a coconut tree by walking up the trunk [35] on a flexible little feet, to break open a coconut with one firm well-directed blow of a knife, to play a number of group games and sing the songs which go [36] with them, to tidy the house by picking up the litter on the stony floor, to bring water from the sea, to spread out the copra to dry and to help gather it in when rain threatens, to go to a neighboring house and bring back a lighted stick for the [37] chiefs’s pipe or the fire.  

But in the case of the little girls, all these tasks are merely supplementary to the main business of [38] babies tending. Very small boys also have some care of the younger children, but at eight or nine years of age they are usually relieved of it. Whatever rough edges have not been smoothed off by this responsibility for younger children are worn off by their contact with older boys. For little boys are admitted to interesting and important activities only so long as their behavior is circumspect and helpful.

While small girls are [39] serenely pushed aside, small boys will be patiently tolerated, and they become adept at making themselves useful. The four or five little boys who all wish to [40] assist at the important, business of helping grown youth lasso reef eels, organize themselves into a highly efficient working team; one boy holds the bait, another holds an extra lasso, others poke eagerly about in holes in the reef looking for prey, while still another tucks the captured eels into their cloth. [41] Too young to adventure on the reef, the girls are burdened with heavy babies or the care of little staggerers, discouraged by the hostility of the small boys and the scorn of the older ones, have little opportunity [42] for learning boys’ games which are more adventurous than the girls.

So while the little boys first undergo the chastening effects of caring for babies and then have many opportunities to learn effective cooperation under the supervision of older boys, the girls' education is less comprehensive. [43] This is particularly apparent in the activities of young people: the boys [44] organize quickly the girls waste hours in bickering, innocent of any technique for quick and efficient cooperation.