John Constable and J.M. W. Turner, two prominent nineteenth-century English Romanticist landscape painters, (1) was an ardent rival. Turner believed that Constable's straightforward depictions of scenery lacked energy; Constable, meanwhile, felt that Turner's paintings, which represented nature in a more abstract way, were "just steam and light." (2) They had stylistic differences. These stylistic differences grew into personal animosity in 1831. Appointed to oversee the arrangement of paintings for the annual Royal Academy Exhibition-a prestigious London art show-Constable moved one of his rival's paintings from (3) its' central position and replaced it with one of his own. Turner was furious.

The conflict came to a head the following year, as (4) the two artists prepared to display new works side by side at the 1832 Royal Academy Exhibition. Constable's The Opening of Waterloo Bridge depicted a grand public occasion with bright colors and detailed illustrations of officers and ships; Turner's Helvoetsluys, (5) by contrast, was a relatively sparse painting of windswept ships rendered in grays and whites. A few days before the exhibition's opening, as more than a dozen artists put final touches on their works, Turner eyed Constable's (6) painting, Constable was adorning it with flecks of red paint. Grabbing his palette, Turner faced his own painting and put a glob of bright red paint about the size of a quarter in the center of the canvas, shaping it into a buoy with a few brief brushstrokes; (7)  then, without a word, he left the gallery. "He has been here and fired a gun," Constable remarked, aghast, upon seeing Turner's last-minute addition.

Constable's metaphor rang true: with just a single bright red daub, Turner not only dramatically altered his painting but also dealt a blow to his adversary. Fellow painter C. R. Leslie observed that the prominent spot of red against the otherwise muted seascape ultimately perfected (8) Helvoetsluys, at the same time, Turner's sparing use of color seemed to mock Constable's adjacent painting, which appeared cluttered and overworked by comparison. "What a piece of plaster it is!" one art critic, capturing the public sentiment, remarked of The Opening of Waterloo Bridge. Though Constable's reputation survived the incident, Turner's headline-making stunt stole the show, attracting (9) crowds of an enormous nature eager to judge the (10) paintings merits for themselves. As the public debated whether Turner or Constable better captured the spirit of natural scenery, the older neoclassical style (which favored historical themes) soon fell out of fashion. Thus, (11) landscape painting quickly displaced neoclassical painting as the most popular form of visual art. 

Recent research has illuminating news about the effects of electronic-device use on sleep. Artificial light is now known to cause sleep (12) problems. It does this by impacting circadian rhythm, the body's internal 24-hour clock. The circadian rhythm adjusts biological functions to the changes in levels of light in the environment, which is why people are drowsy at night and alert during the day. Artificial light at night confuses the body and changes its (13) functions-increasing its temperature, for example.

Visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes can see. The human eye reacts to wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nanometers, which roughly correspond to the color range of the rainbow, from the shorter wavelengths of violet at one (14) end, and the longer wavelengths of red at the other. Light in the blue (15) range emitted, by the Sun, during the day causes the eye to send chemical messages to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain. The SCN controls the physiological responses of wakefulness, such as increased alertness, elevated body temperature, and higher heart rate. These blue-light wavelengths are the same as those emitted by artificial sources of (16) light; particularly: computer screens, (17) to watch television, and cell phones. (18) Nevertheless, these devices affect our brains and bodies much (19) like daylight's effect. According to the National Sleep Foundation, 95 percent of Americans use mobile devices in the hour before bedtime and thus are exposed to blue light just before going to sleep. Not surprisingly, 43 percent of Americans report chronic sleep problems.

In 2009, researchers at the University of Montreal found that blue light, compared with light at other wavelengths, is particularly effective at elevating body temperature and heart rate. A 2003 study at Harvard Medical School found that blue light (20) suppresses the secretion of melatonin, a hormone released at night that helps the body feel tired. (21) Melatonin plays an important role in the human sleep cycle.

Sleep scientists propose a number of solutions to limit exposure to blue light in the evenings. There is software for mobile devices that adjusts the light of the screen to a reddish color in the evenings. Studies show that when orange-red light is equally as bright as blue light, the orange-red light does not have the same physiological impact on sleep as blue light. People can also wear amber-colored glasses that block blue light. Ultimately, the best way to limit blue-light exposure and get a good night's rest is to banish technology from the bedroom and (22) avoid time in front of screens at the end of the day.  

(23) Careers in remote sensing, the study of information gathered by satellites, have always been affected by developments in the aerospace industry. Remote sensing specialists use satellite information to create maps, 3-D models, and other visualizations of data that have applications in numerous industries and disciplines.

Uses for remote sensing (24) has become more plentiful as technology has progressed, as NASA scientist Helen Stewart can attest. Stewart is the manager of mission operations and ground data systems for NASA's Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). Launched in 2013 to gather information about the lowest level of the Sun's outer atmosphere, or chromosphere (the primary source of Earth's ultraviolet radiation), the IRIS satellite contains a spectrograph, a camera that captures the physical signatures of light in the form of spectra. These spectra are then modeled and analyzed on NASA's (25) supercomputers.To provide insight into the processes that shape and heat the chromosphere. Stewart and her team will use the simulations of IRIS data to gain a better understanding of the chromosphere and Remote sensing also serves important functions back on Earth, as illustrated by the work of remote sensing specialist Karen Schuckman, who was involved in the North Carolina Floodplain Mapping Program. The program employed light detection and ranging (LIDAR) (26) technology, and which uses lasers from satellites to measure distances to Earth and (27) induce highly accurate topographical maps, to assess floodplain boundaries. Schuckman combined (28) them with field data to create forecast maps that predict which areas (29) among those that Schuckman surveyed are likely to flood hours or even days before the flooding occurs. (30) Schuckman teaches remote sensing at Pennsylvania State University.

Research on remote sensing suggests (31) the field will continue to expand rapidly. A 2012 report by Northern Sky Research about satellite data and other remote sensing services, for example, projected that over all growth would be relatively slow between 2011 and 2015 , with the size of the market increasing from about $2 billion to $3 billion, but that the field would grow much more quickly after 2015, (32) with the exception of 2019. Although spending on defense and intelligence applications is expected to grow overall, its contribution to the market is forecast to be outpaced by that of spending on nondefense and nongovernment services. With so many potential applications and more on the horizon, remote sensing (33) promises, a wide range of career opportunities.

[1] Every year, research studies are conducted with the fiscal support of government entities. [2] Yet these studies-funded with taxpayer money precisely because of their importance to the public interest-are largely published in academic journals whose steep subscription fees place (34) it out of reach of the average person. [ 3] To rectify this situation, the results of government-funded research should be published in a form that is freely accessible to the public. [4] This arrangement gives private organizations control over information that should be available for the benefit of people around the globe. (35)  

One platform that is becoming increasingly popular for free access to research is the open-access database. These databases include academic papers that can be read by anyone at no charge, and they are already being championed by some national agencies and governments. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States, for example, has had an open-access policy in place since 2008. Recognizing the importance of access to biomedical research for (36) patients, doctors, and others, (37) the NIH's requirement is that any papers resulting from NIH funding be deposited in the open-access database PubMed Central. The government of the United Kingdom has applied this principle more broadly: a 2012 policy mandated that all government-funded research in the United Kingdom be made available to the public free of charge. In a report submitted to the UK government that helped provide the basis for the 2012 mandate, a group led by sociologist Janet Finch asserted that "many benefits could result if we were to move worldwide to an open-access regime," including (38) increased public support for government funding of research.

Consider the case of Jack Andraka, a Maryland high school student who announced in 2012 that he had achieved a medical breakthrough: a diagnostic test for pancreatic cancer that costs only three cents per use and is over four hundred times more sensitive than other tests. Crucial to Andraka's work was (39) published research he had found for free online. That research that he found for free included what he found in PubMed Central. Without open access, he could not have retrieved research essential to the development of his test.

Some are concerned that open-access publications will be too expensive to maintain in the absence of subscription fees. However, online publishing is (40) cheaper compared with traditional publishing, as it (41) eludes the costs of physical production and distribution. One online (42) publisher-the database archive, spends only ten dollars per paper accepted, (43) an expense covered by donations. Open access, then, is a viable option. (44)