Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales's experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.

If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone. According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the uncut stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.

When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and assume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, bonacite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.

Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyroelectric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50° F. and 300° F. it assumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a glass rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.

It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50° F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300° F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly illustrated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.

From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyroelectric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent sometimes in nature may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.

Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, and topaz.

With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnetite, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.

Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales's experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.

If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone. According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the uncut stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.

When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and assume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, bonacite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.

Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyroelectric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50° F. and 300° F. it assumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a glass rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.

It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50° F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300° F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly illustrated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.

From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyroelectric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent sometimes in nature may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.

Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, and topaz.

With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnetite, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.

Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales's experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.

If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone. According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the uncut stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.

When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and assume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, bonacite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.

Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyroelectric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50° F. and 300° F. it assumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a glass rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.

It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50° F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300° F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly illustrated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.

From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyroelectric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent sometimes in nature may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.

Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, and topaz.

With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnetite, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.

Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales's experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.

If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone. According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the uncut stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.

When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and assume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, bonacite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.

Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyroelectric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50° F. and 300° F. it assumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a glass rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.

It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50° F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300° F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly illustrated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.

From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyroelectric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent sometimes in nature may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.

Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, and topaz.

With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnetite, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.

Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales's experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.

If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone. According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the uncut stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.

When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and assume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, bonacite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.

Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyroelectric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50° F. and 300° F. it assumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a glass rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.

It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50° F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300° F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly illustrated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.

From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyroelectric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent sometimes in nature may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.

Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, and topaz.

With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnetite, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.