In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of latitude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of till has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set. The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine shells, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state.

The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfarshire; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratic above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine shells of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species—a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high latitudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The multitude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and accumulations of snow and ice.

In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of latitude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of till has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set. The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine shells, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state.

The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfarshire; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratic above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine shells of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species—a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high latitudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The multitude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and accumulations of snow and ice.

In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of latitude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of till has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set. The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine shells, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state.

The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfarshire; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratic above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine shells of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species—a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high latitudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The multitude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and accumulations of snow and ice.

In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of latitude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of till has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set. The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine shells, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state.

The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfarshire; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratic above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine shells of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species—a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high latitudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The multitude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and accumulations of snow and ice.

In speaking of the loose transported matter commonly found on the surface of the land in all parts of the globe, I alluded to the exceptional character of what has been called the boulder formation in the temperate and Arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The peculiarity of its form in Europe north of the 50th, and in North America north of the 40th parallel of latitude, is now universally attributed to the action of ice, and the difference of opinion respecting it is now chiefly restricted to the question whether land-ice or floating icebergs have played the chief part in its distribution. It is wanting in the warmer and equatorial regions, and reappears when we examine the lands which lie south of the 40th and 50th parallels in the southern hemisphere, as, for example, in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and New Zealand. It consists of sand and clay, sometimes stratified, but often wholly devoid of stratification for a depth of 50, 100, or even a greater number of feet. To this unstratified form of the deposit the name of till has long been applied in Scotland. It generally contains a mixture of angular and rounded fragments of rock, some of large size, having occasionally one or more of their sides flattened and smoothed, or even highly polished. The smoothed surfaces usually exhibit many scratches parallel to each other, one set of which often crosses an older set. The till is almost everywhere wholly devoid of organic remains, except those washed into it from older formations, though in some places it contains marine shells, usually of northern or Arctic species, and frequently in a fragmentary state.

The bulk of the till has usually been derived from the grinding down into mud of rocks in the immediate neighbourhood, so that it is red in a region of Red Sandstone, as in Strathmore in Forfarshire; grey or black in a district of coal and bituminous shale, as around Edinburgh; and white in a chalk country, as in parts of Norfolk and Denmark. The stony fragments dispersed irregularly through the till usually belong, especially in mountainous countries, to rocks found in some part of the same hydrographical basin; but there are regions where the whole of the boulder clay has come from a distance, and huge blocks, or "erratics," as they have been called, many feet in diameter, have not unfrequently travelled hundreds of miles from their point of departure, or from the parent rocks from which they have evidently been detached. These are commonly angular, and have often one or more of their sides polished and furrowed.

The rock on which the boulder formation reposes, if it consists of granite, gneiss, marble, or other hard stone, capable of permanently retaining any superficial markings which may have been imprinted upon it, is usually smoothed or polished, like the erratic above described, and exhibits parallel striae and furrows having a determinate direction. This direction, both in Europe and North America, agrees generally in a marked manner with the course taken by the erratic blocks in the same district. The boulder clay, when it was first studied, seemed in many of its characters so singular and anomalous, that geologists despaired of ever being able to interpret the phenomena by reference to causes now in action. In those exceptional cases where marine shells of the same date as the boulder clay were found, nearly all of them were recognised as living species—a fact conspiring with the superficial position of the drift to indicate a comparatively modern origin.

The term "diluvium" was for a time the most popular name of the boulder formation, because it was referred by many to the deluge of Noah, while others retained the name as expressive of their opinion that a series of diluvial waves raised by hurricanes and storms, or by earthquakes, or by the sudden upheaval of land from the bed of the sea, had swept over the continents, carrying with them vast masses of mud and heavy stones, and forcing these stones over rocky surfaces so as to polish and imprint upon them long furrows and striae. But geologists were not long in seeing that the boulder formation was characteristic of high latitudes, and that on the whole the size and number of erratic blocks increases as we travel towards the Arctic regions. They could not fail to be struck with the contrast which the countries bordering the Baltic presented when compared with those surrounding the Mediterranean. The multitude of travelled blocks and striated rocks in the one region, and the absence of such appearances in the other, were too obvious to be overlooked. Even the great development of the boulder formation, with large erratics so far south as the Alps, offered an exception to the general rule favourable to the hypothesis that there was some intimate connection between it and accumulations of snow and ice.